Lab-Grown Food and the Environment

By Saharsh Satheesh

Published 2:20 EST, Sun, November 7th, 2021

Introduction 

With the importance of resource conservation becoming apparent in recent years, companies are beginning to experiment with lab-grown meat to make it a viable alternative to animal meat. Scientists are also beginning to examine the emergence of lab-grown meat and consider the benefits and detriments of this rapidly growing alternative. While lab-based meat may bring its own disadvantages along with it, the development of the lab-grown meat industry will be imperative for slowing down the impending climate crisis and providing relief via food for countries worldwide.

For example, lab-grown meat may help the current issue of climate change. Although some consider it and the plant-based diet better for the planet, it is still an issue hotly contested among specialists. In addition, some argue that there may be the issue of monopolies attempting to exploit the lab-grown food industry. There is also the fear of the loss of hundreds of thousands of jobs due to the lab-grown food industry. 

Recent Advancements

Scientists are also experimenting with plant-based bacon and plant-based tuna, among others, but it lacks the feeling of animal fat, which is what creates a satiating feeling for the taste buds. In addition, there is concern about the high sodium content in plant-based meats, which some argue is the reason why it should not be consumed on a daily basis. There is also a rapidly emerging field known as tissue engineering, in which cells are grown into organs. A similar concept is applied in the lab-grown foods industry in which cells are taken and fed with amino acids, insulin, and carbohydrates. To some, the idea of engineering meat in a lab may not be appealing; as a result, younger demographics may become bigger targets, as they will grow with the new lab-grown food generation. In addition, scientists are beginning to see vast potential in algae and fungi, which can be grown easily as they are far simpler and require less work when growing. Companies could take advantage of the immense potential here by capitalizing on the nascent lab-grown meat industry on a worldwide scale.

Recently, Singapore made headlines for being one of the first countries to approve lab-based meat for use as an ingredient in chicken nuggets. An article by the New York Times examines this in detail and explains that “‘This is a historic moment in the food system,’ Eat Just’s chief executive, Josh Tetrick, said by telephone on Wednesday. ‘We’ve been eating meat for thousands of years, and every time we’ve eaten meat we’ve had to kill an animal — until now.’”

Meats are not the only lab-grown foods being studied and tested. An example of a specific non-meat product being worked on is pea protein milk. Peas are being used to create dairy milk since alternatives to dairy milk usually lack the protein that is in regular dairy milk. The pea protein milk, however, has comparable levels of protein as regular dairy milk and takes significantly less energy to produce. Some companies also grow vegetables indoors vertically with artificial light, which uses significantly less water and land. This potentially could have significant applications in the future with arable land decreasing by the day. Agriculture has decreased the fertility of almost a third of the Earth’s soil (Guardian News and Media). Areas such as Sub-Saharan Africa are already affected by poverty and poor growing conditions, and the loss of arable land will continue to exacerbate the issue. Some European countries are also at risk; according to Guardian News and Media, “poor land management in Europe also accounts for an estimated 970m tonnes of soil loss from erosion each year with impacts not just on food production but biodiversity, carbon loss, and disaster resilience. High levels of food consumption in wealthy countries such as the UK are also a major driver of soil degradation overseas.” Thus, the use of lab-grown food along with vertical farming may help in the fight against this.

Conclusion

There are numerous benefits to increasing the presence of the lab-grown meat industry. It can allow us to reduce the rate of global warming, provide relief via food for countries worldwide, and reduce the rate of rapidly decreasing arable lands. It may not be appealing to everyone and further research and testing are still necessary, but with the best interest of society kept in mind, the benefits of lab-grown meat certainly outweigh the costs.

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2021

References

Food Revolution Network. (2020, August 11). Is Lab-Grown Food the Future? – Pros and Cons to Consider. Food Revolution Network. https://foodrevolution.org/blog/is-lab-grown-food-the-future/. 

Guardian News and Media. (2017, September 12). Third of Earth’s soil is acutely degraded due to agriculture. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/12/third-of-earths-soil-acutely-degraded-due-to-agriculture-study

Ives, M. (2020, December 2). Singapore Approves a Lab-Grown Meat Product, a Global First. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/02/business/singapore-lab-meat.html. 

McClurg, Lesley. “Lab-Grown Food: Good for the Planet, Healthy for You?” KQED, 3 Jun. https://www.kqed.org/forum/2010101883764/lab-grown-food-good-for-the-planet-healthy-for-you

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An Overview of Parkinson’s Disease and Treatments

By Saharsh Satheesh

Published 11:11 EST, Tues November 2nd, 2021

Introduction

Affecting over 60,000 Americans yearly, Parkinson’s Disease is a neurodegenerative condition that deteriorates the neurons in one’s brain. Early signs of Parkinson’s Disease include slight tremors and stiffness in the muscles. Research into Parkinson’s Disease in recent years has uncovered many possible treatments.

Causes

As with any disease, it is crucial to discover its causes. In the case of Parkinson’s, one major cause that was discovered was genetics; according to the Parkinson’s Foundation, “Genetics cause about 10 to 15 percent of all Parkinson’s. Over the years, scientists have studied DNA from people with Parkinson’s, comparing their genes. They discovered dozens of gene mutations linked to Parkinson’s.”

Another cause of Parkinson’s is environmental factors. These environmental factors include exposure to certain chemicals or brain damage. Getting Parkinson’s Disease from this is rarer than from genetics, although it is still possible.

There are also certain factors that can put you at a greater chance of getting Parkinson’s. For example, it has been found that men tend to be at a greater risk for developing Parkinson’s than women. In addition, those older — generally at least the age of 60 — tend to have a greater chance of getting Parkinson’s than those who are not.

Complications

Parkinson’s disease will bring on numerous complications. Some of these include swallowing issues, rigid limbs, bladder issues, and sleep problems, among a plethora of others. However, Parkinson’s Disease is not a disease that results in death, so it is important to attempt to live one’s best life while having the disease. 

In a New York Times article, a person with Parkinson’s Disease explains how “[they have] learned to live, albeit with a modicum of trepidation, with the disease. After all, everybody has something wrong with them, even if the worst is acne – and some things are worse than others. [Their] life has not radically altered. Still, [they are] aware that things can change. What’s more, a combination of PD and getting older has cut into [their] productivity. But at least [they are] productive”.

Another person in the same article recounts how after being diagnosed with Parkinson’s, they “[had] to ‘reorder [their] priorities,’ as the expression goes. What it means is that [they are] going to have to dedicate more time to exercise every day of the week. The prospect of working out regularly fills [them] with terror. [They] find the idea of having to confront my demise daily totally depressing. With PD, physical exertion is supposed to be a mood upper.”

Although Parkinson’s is certainly a debilitating disease, there is still lots of hope, and since the disease itself does not cause death, it is important to keep an open mind and attempt to overcome everyday obstacles to live as regular a life as possible.

Treatments

Apart from medications, one common treatment — as stated in the above quote by a Parkinson’s disease patient — is exercise. Research has found that exercise especially can aid in Parkinson’s Disease patients’ improvement of balance and mobility.

Another possible treatment that research has been looking into in recent years is audio cueing, which is the use of music and its rhythms to improve the gait of those afflicted by Parkinson’s. A research paper in Nature explains that “of 4204 records, 50 studies, involving 1892 participants met our inclusion criteria. The analysis revealed an overall positive effect on gait velocity, stride length, and a negative effect on cadence with the application of auditory cueing. Neurophysiological mechanisms, training dosage, effects of higher information processing constraints, and use of cueing as an adjunct with medications are thoroughly discussed. This present review bridges the gaps in the literature by suggesting the application of rhythmic auditory cueing in conventional rehabilitation approaches to enhance motor performance and quality of life in the parkinsonian community.”

Conclusion

Parkinson’s Disease is undoubtedly a serious disease with causes including genetics and environmental factors. Complications caused by the disease include swallowing issues, rigid limbs, bladder issues, and sleep problems, among a plethora of others. Fortunately, Parkinson’s is a disease that itself does not cause one’s death, so with the Diseaseregiment, it is possible to continue to live a normal life — although some lifestyle changes would likely need to occur. Apart from medications, there are emerging treatments, including some gaining traction in recent years such as audio cueing. 

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2021

References

Almeida, Maria Joao. “Parkinson’s Disease and Exercise.” Parkinson’s News Today, 1 June 2017, parkinsonsnewstoday.com/parkinsons-disease-and-exercise/#:~:text=Exercise%20is%20important%20for%20people,in%20their%20quality%20of%20life.

“Causes.” Parkinson’s Foundation, http://www.parkinson.org/Understanding-Parkinsons/Causes.

Ghai, Shashank, et al. “Effect of Rhythmic Auditory Cueing on Parkinsonian Gait: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 11 Jan. 2018, http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-16232-5.

Heller, Steven, and Véronique Vienne. “What It Feels like to Live with Parkinson’s.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 23 June 2021, http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/06/23/well/parkinsons-letters.html.

Naqvi, Erum. “Parkinson’s Disease Statistics.” Parkinson’s News Today, 6 Aug. 2018, parkinsonsnewstoday.com/parkinsons-disease-statistics/.

“Parkinson’s Disease.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 8 Dec. 2020, http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20376055#:~:text=In%20Parkinson’s%20disease%2C%20certain%20nerve,in%20your%20brain%20called%20dopamine.

“What Is Parkinson’s?” Parkinson’s Foundation, http://www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/what-is-parkinsons. 

Green Practices: Whose Responsibility Is It

By Saharsh Satheesh

Published 10:14 EST, Thur September 9th, 2021

Introduction

Modern society emphasizes the importance of conservation of resources and sustainable development, instilling these virtues from a young age for the betterment of society. However, in what ways beyond simply awareness could the movement towards conservation be encouraged? With the importance of resource conservation becoming apparent in recent years, some argue that conservation remain a suggestion, whereas others propose the government create a requirement for all citizens to conserve resources. While the involvement of the government may be futile unless large corporations begin to conserve more, the government should persist in creating rewards for citizens and discourage those who neglect new standards, all the while establishing a precedent for conservation.

Methods for Cultivating Green Practices

For example, motivating citizens by means of incentives may propel the cause of cultivating green practices. In 2003, Germany implemented a system known as “pfand, an additional deposit [one pays] as part of the price of a bottle or can [that] gets reimbursed when [one returns] the container to a vendor,” which caused “recycling rates for cans [to rise to] 99% [in Germany]” (Oltermann). If citizens were left to themselves to decide where to dispose cans, perhaps only a small percentage of the population may dispose of them in an environmentally friendly manner. However, when the government takes action and creates a system where citizens themselves can benefit, which in this case is monetary compensation, they are motivated to support the cause. In addition, with the emission of greenhouse gases from cars becoming an issue, “the [Singaporean] government [began giving] a lump sum tax rebate of 40% of the price of a vehicle to Singaporeans who opt for hybrids” (Webber). Singapore’s solution to combating the emission of greenhouse gases is ingenious; citizens, for the most part, are unconcerned with whether they purchase a traditional gas vehicle or a hybrid vehicle, and with the right compensation, one may be even be seen as significantly better option than the other. Since cars are one of the most common means for transportation, by enforcing a law that saves citizens money while simultaneously upholding green principles, citizens may be compelled to contribute to the cause of conservation. Thus, when the government establishes laws and practices such that citizens can benefit from them, it becomes more appealing, and this increases the likelihood of successfully cultivating green practices.

In addition, when the government takes initiative and penalizes those who do not exercise green practices, it strengthens the cause for the adoption of environmentally friendly practices. For example, when the “Princess Cruise Lines” in 2016 “[dumped] oil-contaminated waste into the sea” and attempted to cover it up, “[they] agreed to pay $40 million”, as the waste is hazardous to marine life, reduces oxygen concentration in water, and contradicts the principles of green practices (Mervosh). The government has strict guidelines, and any deviation from that, as seen in the example with Princess Cruise Lines, is punishable by law. This ensures that companies and individuals will obey guidelines in the future, as they are aware of what consequences they may face. However, some claim that even with measures in place such as fines for pollution, large corporations will continue to disregard laws, and without the cooperation of these large corporations, it is futile to ask individuals to contribute to conservation. However, an act that directly disproves this theory is the cap-and-trade system, in which “the government first creates a ‘cap’ on the total amount of pollutants emitters may release,” which in Europe caused “emissions [to reduce] by 29% in 2018” (“Cap-and-Trade”). This cap-and-trade system also allows corporations to, as its name implies, trade their caps so that the total pollution emitted remains the same; corporations can, however, trade within themselves, so they do not exceed their maximum permitted pollution level, as exceeding so would result in heavy fines. By allowing corporations to trade their caps, the government ensures that corporations are appeased, as those who need to pollute more can simply purchase from other companies. As a result, corporations, for the most part, are not majorly impacted, and green principles are maintained. Furthermore, these actions by the government are instrumental in establishing a precedent for conservation. In a 2007 survey of residents in different countries, it was found that over 85% of residents in the United States and Japan voluntarily recycle (Rheault). The high rate of conservation-centered residents is undoubtedly the result of government actions that fostered green principles. Due to the various systems and incentives implemented, citizens were motivated to contribute to the cause of conservation. Thus, when the government interferes and creates a system where consequences are imminent for those who do not follow implemented standards, the goal of enriching green principles is achieved.

Conclusion

Although it may seem that the efforts to conserve resources and practice sustainable methods will not have a significant impact unless large corporations begin to follow those standards, if the government creates a system for citizens to benefit from conservation and devises consequences for those who break conservation laws, the creation of a society that is concerned with holding onto green principles will naturally occur, setting a precedent for future generations. With the urgency for conservation being observed in recent years, it is becoming evident that the government should be responsible for leading citizens and corporations to better manage resources. After all, these resources do not exist in infinite quantities, and in order to allow future generations to have the same rights to the resources used in the present-day, it is imperative that the government cultivates green practices.

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2021

Sources

“Cap-and-Trade.” Legal Information Institute, Legal Information Institute, May 2020, http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/cap-and-trade.

Mervosh, Sarah. “Carnival Cruises to Pay $20 Million in Pollution and Cover-Up Case.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 4 June 2019,

http://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/04/business/carnival-cruise-pollution.html.

Oltermann, Philip. “Has Germany Hit the Jackpot of Recycling? The Jury’s Still Out.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 30 Mar. 2018,

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/30/has-germany-hit-the-jackpot-of-recycling-the-jurys-still-out.

Rheault, Magali. “In Top Polluting Nations, Efforts to Live ‘Green’ Vary.” Gallup. Gallup, Inc., 22 Apr. 2008. Web. 18 Aug. 2009

Webber, Alan M. “U.S. Could Learn a Thing or Two from Singapore.” Editorial. USA Today. USA Today, 14 Aug. 2006. Web. 17 Aug. 2009.

River Pollution: Endocrine Disruptors, Eutrophication, and Solutions

By Saharsh Satheesh

Published 11:40 EST, Monday September 6, 2021

Introduction

River pollution and water pollution, in general, has become a major focus of the public in recent decades. In fact, just this month, a fire broke out in the Gulf of Mexico following a gas leak. These events can be environmentally destructive, and as a result, it is imperative that we find solutions to these catastrophic events. 

Potomac River

The Potomac River has recently come under scrutiny for the increasing levels of pollution in it. About a decade ago, the river earned a D grade, a poor score that suggested high pollution levels. Over the last decade, my advancements have been made to decrease pollution and spread awareness so that the situation does not worsen to such an extreme again.

One cause of this pollution is the fact that PCBs do not break down easily, and as a result, PCBs, which have not been manufactured since 1979, still pollute the Potomac and other rivers. Polluted urban runoff is another major issue for the Potomac. A proposed solution for this was to set limits for the quantity of pollution in the river, which would reduce the amounts of sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus deposited into the river. There are many consequences of these pollutants entering the water including overstimulation of aquatic plants, eutrophication, and reduced water flow, among a plethora of others. There have also been findings of alteration of animal hormones due to these excess pollutants. Specifically, this is caused by endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Furthermore, when there is high rainfall, sewage pipes overflow and this causes bacteria to enter the river, such as E. Coli.

Economic services that occurred on the Potomac, such as kayaking and boat tours, may reduce the increasing pollution out of the understandable fear of pollution’s harmful effects on humans. Ecological services on the Potomac attempt to spread awareness about these issues, such as Outward Bound, which educates middle schoolers on various things including service projects and river ecology. 

Many solutions have been proposed and/or implemented to combat pollution. One is to plant streamside trees. These trees will be able to capture the polluted runoff. Another solution is to reduce the maximum amount of allowed urban and farm runoff to reduce the total amount of pollutants entering the Potomac.

Through all these efforts, in 2018, Potomac’s grade was increased up to a B. Unfortunately, however, it dropped to a B- in 2020. That being said, Greater awareness and efforts will aid in the journey towards increasing the Potomac’s grade. 

Cuyahoga River

On a summer day in 1969, a train blazed through tracks near the Cuyahoga River. As the train sped along the tracks, a few sparks from the contact between the train and track flew into the Cuyahoga River. Within minutes, the river caught on fire, although it was extinguished within the next hour. However, this brought numerous questions and concerns: why did the river catch on fire, how severe was the damage, and how can this be avoided in the future?

When the fire occurred, it was not initially a cause for concern in the community. According to National Geographic, “When fire broke out on the river again in 1969, it seemed like business as usual. ‘Most Clevelanders seemed not to care a great deal,’ write environmental historians David Stradling and Richard Stradling. ‘Far too many problems plagued the city for residents to get hung up on a little fire…The ’69 fire didn’t represent the culmination of an abusive relationship between a city and its environment. It was simply another sad chapter in the long story of a terribly polluted river.’”

However, the situation was brought to the interest of the public again following the publishing of Rachel Carson’s iconic book “Silent Spring,” which highlighted the importance of environmental conservation and exemplified the drawbacks of DDTs. 

With this renewed interest in the fire, it was discovered that the cause of the fire was largely due to the pollution accumulating in the river in the decades prior to the fire. The dumping of oils and other flammable materials was at such an extreme degree that the spark from the train was able to set the river on fire. Undoubtedly, this fire was very detrimental to the organisms living in the river. That being said, there were very thorough efforts to rectify the damage done and to prevent this in the future.

According to the New York Times, “The cleanup of the river advanced on many fronts. A year before the fire, Cleveland residents voted to tax themselves an additional $100 million for river restoration. Since then, local industries and the Northwest Ohio Regional Sewer District have spent $3.5 billion to reduce sewage and industrial waste pollution, Mr. White said.”

Through these efforts, the Cuyahoga River is in the process of healing. Pollution levels have significantly decreased since the fire of 1969. These efforts have increased awareness for river pollution worldwide, and hopefully, no river reaches pollution levels of such an extreme degree again.

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal, 2021

References

“2020 Potomac River Report Card.” 2020 Potomac River Report Card | #Potomacreportcard, http://www.potomacreportcard.org/.

“2020 Potomac River Report Card.” Potomac Conservancy, potomacreportcard.org/pollution/.

Blakemore, Erin. “The Shocking River Fire That Fueled the Creation of the EPA.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 22 Apr. 2019, http://www.history.com/news/epa-earth-day-cleveland-cuyahoga-river-fire-clean-water-act. 

Board, Editorial. “Opinion | The Potomac River Is Getting Cleaner. Now’s Not the Time to Take Away Funding.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 30 Mar. 2018, http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-potomac-river-is-getting-cleaner-nows-not-the-time-to-take-away-funding/2018/03/30/40ad4194-338d-11e8-94fa-32d48460b955_story.html.

Cooper, Rachel. “Things to Know About Washington DC’s Potomac River.” TripSavvy, http://www.tripsavvy.com/washington-dc-potomac-river-waterfront-1038693.

“CUYAHOGA RIVER FIRE: Encyclopedia of Cleveland History: Case Western Reserve University.” Encyclopedia of Cleveland History | Case Western Reserve University, 14 Jan. 2020, case.edu/ech/articles/c/cuyahoga-river-fire#:~:text=The%20blaze%20apparently%20was%20caused,hill%2C%20SE%2C%20in%20Cleveland. 

Lugbill, Stephanie. “Ask the Expert: Is It Safe to Swim in the Potomac?” Potomac Conservancy, Potomac Conservancy, 6 Aug. 2018, potomac.org/blog/2018/6/19/potomac-river-swimmings-laws-regulations-washington-dc.

​​Maag, Christopher. “From the Ashes of ’69, a River Reborn.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 21 June 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/21/us/21river.html. 

Nitrogen and Water, http://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/nitrogen-and-water?qt-science_center_objects=0.

“Potomac River Canoeing: Environmental Service Leaders.” 8-Day Canoeing Environmental Leadership Program | Outward Bound, http://www.outwardbound.org/course/potomac-river-canoeing-environmental-service-leaders/654/.

Written by Jane Recker | Published on October 29, 2020. “For the First Time in a Decade, the Potomac River’s Health Is in Decline: Washingtonian (DC).” Washingtonian, 29 Oct. 2020, http://www.washingtonian.com/2020/10/29/for-the-first-time-in-a-decade-the-potomac-rivers-health-is-in-decline/.

A Brief Overview of Telomeres

By Saharsh Satheesh

Published 1:07 PM EST, Mon May 3, 2021

Introduction

For centuries, scientists have pondered about the human body and the structures that make us who we are. In recent decades, advances in genetics have helped us understand more about the human genome and the processes by which we are able to live. One notable advancement was in the study of telomeres. It had been known that telomeres, which are caps on the end of chromosomes, help protect the chromosome. However, its composition and true use was not well understood.

Cells constantly divide, and every time they divide, the DNA copies as well. When this occurs, the telomeres at the ends wear down. In humans, telomeres consist of a repeating sequence of 5’-TTAGGG-3’. This sequence can be repeated over 3,000 times and some cells can reverse the process of losing telomeres by using the enzyme telomerase, where it functions by adding telomeres. Telomerase is usually inactive in somatic cells but can be active in fetal tissue and germ cells.

Studies

As cells replicate, these telomeres shorten, and studies have shown that this is associated with aging. A paper by Masood A. Shammas explains that “Telomere length in humans seems to decrease at a rate of 24.8–27.7 base pairs per year [12,13]. Telomere length, shorter than the average telomere length for a specific age group, has been associated with increased incidence of age-related diseases and/or decreased lifespan in humans [10,14,15]. Telomere length is affected by a combination of factors including donor age [16], genetic, epigenetic make-up and environment [17–20], social and economic status [21,22], exercise [21], body weight [12,23], and smoking [12,24]. Gender does not seem to have any significant effect on the rate of telomere loss [13]. When telomere length reaches below a critical limit, the cells undergo senescence and/or apoptosis [25,26].”

Thus, according to Shammas, although “telomere length shortens with age, [the] rate of telomere shortening can be either increased or decreased by specific lifestyle factors. Better choice of diet and activities has great potential to reduce the rate of telomere shortening or at least prevent excessive telomere attrition, leading to delayed onset of age-associated diseases and increased lifespan.”

Future Prospects

Much is still to be understood about telomeres and the secrets that they hold. Scientists are currently studying how telomeres may be useful in better understanding and possibly preventing cancer. Cancer cells are able to use telomerase to continuously replicate, but, according to Jerry W. Shay, “inhibition of telomerase may thus represent a novel anticancer therapeutic approach. If we can suppress telomerase, we may be able to drive cancer cells into a growth arrest state. Many laboratories, including [his] own, are studying this at the present time, and the preliminary results are very encouraging.”

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2021

References

Shay, Jerry W. “Do the Telomeres in Cancer Cells Shrink?” Scientific American, Scientific American, 8 Jan. 2001, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-the-telomeres-in-cance/.

Shammas, Masood A. “Telomeres, lifestyle, cancer, and aging.” Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care vol. 14,1 (2011): 28-34. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e32834121b1

“Telomere.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 2 Apr. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere.

“Telomeres and Telomerase (Article).” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, http://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-genetic-material/dna-replication/a/telomeres-telomerase.

“What Is a Telomere?” Facts, The Public Engagement Team at the Wellcome Genome Campus, 25 Jan. 2016, http://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-telomere.

Prions and Associated Diseases

By Saharsh Satheesh

Published 5:50 PM EST, Sun March 14, 2021

Introduction

In the last thirty years, a significant finding in the world of medicine was the discovery of prions. Essentially, prions are misfolded proteins that can cause neurodegenerative diseases. One of the earliest cases of a prion-caused disease was scrapie, a disease afflicting sheep. The disease may take several years to develop, but once its symptoms are noticeable, a sheep usually has less than six months to live. In the months following the first symptoms, such as nervousness and behavioral changes, the sheep may begin to lose weight and become unable to maintain muscle coordination.

The main method by which animals are infected with prions is ingestion; prions can be found in urine, saliva, and dead animals. These prions can also be transferred if one comes in contact with infected nervous tissue. For instance, ingesting infected meat may cause the formation of prions. Additionally, a mistake in translation of mRNA to a protein may cause a prion to develop.

Mad Cow Disease

Another disease caused by prions is BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), more commonly known as Mad Cow Disease. The disease was first discovered in the 1970s, and current research hypothesizes that prions are the cause of the disease. The disease affects the nervous system, and one of its first symptoms is the inability to coordinate movements. Similar to scrapie in sheep, cows usually have less than six months to live after the first symptoms are noticed.

How does the disease spread in cows? The disease is spread when a cow is fed the flesh of farm animals that have bovine origin proteins in it. In order to prevent the spread, the solution was to implement a ban against feed that contains mammalian-origin proteins.

However, according to the FDA rules and regulations, “while the prevalence of BSE in the United States is very much lower than in European countries with BSE, evidence from the European experience has demonstrated that, in countries with a high level of circulating BSE infectivity, measures on only ruminant feed were not sufficient to eliminate all transmission of BSE; new cases continued to be found in cattle born in the United Kingdom after implementation of a ruminant-to-ruminant feed ban.”

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

An example of a prion-caused disease in humans is known as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). Both Mad Cow Disease and CJD are transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), but CJD is only present in humans. Early symptoms of CJD include memory loss and reduced coordination, but as the disease progresses, those affected may mentally decline and go into a coma.

There are three common forms of CJD: sporadic, familial, and acquired. Sporadic CJD (sCJD) is the most common form, and it generally occurs in those over the age of fifty. This form of CJD is when a protein randomly misfolds. Familial CJD is far less common than sCJD, and this form is caused by inherited CJD. This form of CJD is noticeable at a younger age than sCJD. Lastly, acquired CJD is the rarest form, and it usually occurs when one comes in contact with infected tissue.

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2021

References

“About BSE BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy).” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 9 Oct. 2018, www.cdc.gov/prions/bse/about.html.

“CREUTZFELDT – JAKOB DISEASE (CJD) AND MAD COW DISEASE.” 2011. PDF file. https://dhss.delaware.gov/dph/files/cjdmadcowfaq.pdf

Federal Register, Volume 73 Issue 81 (Friday, April 25, 2008), http://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2008-04-25/html/08-1180.htm.

“Prion Diseases.” Johns Hopkins Medicine, http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/prion-diseases.

“Prion.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion#:~:text=It%20has%20been%20recognized%20that,make%20it%20rearrange%20its%20structure.

“Prion.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion.

“Scrapie.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., http://www.britannica.com/science/scrapie.

What Are Prions?, http://www.prionalliance.org/2013/11/26/what-are-prions/.

“What Is Scrapie?” Scrapie Canada, scrapiecanada.ca/about-scrapie/.

Yan, Yu, and Yu Yan. Fact Checking Project on the Film Fresh, 2 Sept. 2014, blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/cctp-638-yy326/claims-and-facts/are-cows-eating-dead-cows-as-feed/#:~:text=Bovine%20Spongiform%20Encephalopathy%20(BSE)%2C,animals%20that%20are%20probably%20infected.&text=As%20a%20result%2C%20cows%20might,eating%20dead%20cows%2C%20just%20indirectly.

Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

By Saharsh Satheesh

Published 5:40 PM EST, Mon February 8, 2021

Introduction

The cell cycle is a process most cells go through that ultimately results in a cell dividing into two daughter cells. Although it may sound like a relatively simple process, every step of the process is very complex.

The cell cycle is divided into two main sections: interphase and mitosis. Interphase is when a cell grows and replicates its DNA, while mitosis is when a cell splits into two identical copies of itself. So why do cells need to split into two? One reason is because if our cells are damaged, mitosis helps us create new cells to take the place of damaged or lost cells.

The cell spends the majority of its time in interphase, preparing to undergo mitosis. Furthermore, mitosis is the shortest phase of the cell cycle.  

Interphase

Interphase is made up of 3 separate phases: G1, S, and G2. During G1, the cell grows and acquires essentials for the upcoming DNA replication and mitosis. In the S phase, the DNA of the cell undergoes replication and the organelles and centrosomes start to duplicate. Organelles are membrane-bound structures in a cell. Centrosomes are organelles that produce spindle fibers during cell division. DNA replication is a complex process, but to put it in simple terms, the DNA replicates so that the two cells produced from mitosis have the same DNA. Finally, in the G2 phase, there is more growth, and the duplication of the organelles and centrosome complete. Upon completing these 3 sections of interphase, the cell may now undergo mitosis. 

Mitosis

Mitosis is made up of 5 distinguished sections: Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, though some coin prometaphase and metaphase as simply metaphase. In prophase, the nucleus of the cell dissolves, and the DNA takes shape from chromatin, which is unraveled DNA, to chromosomes, which is tightly packed DNA. In addition, the centrosomes begin to move apart. In prometaphase, the nuclear lamina dissolves and spindle fibers begin to form. Kinetochores, which are protein structures that the spindle fibers attach to, form in the chromosomes. In metaphase, the spindle fibers complete attaching to the kinetochores, and as a result, the centrosomes get pushed even further to opposite ends of the cell, causing the chromosomes to line up in the middle. In anaphase, the tugging force from the centrosomes drifting apart pushes the chromosomes apart and they split down the middle. In telophase, the centrosomes get pushed apart so much that there are essentially two cells that are attached together by the middle. The nuclear lamina and nucleus reform, and chromosomes change back into chromatin. Finally, in cytokinesis, the cleavage furrow is split by the contractile ring which is made of actin filaments. The cell is pinched into two. At last, the cell has divided, and now the whole process may repeat.

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2021

References

“Cell Cycle.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., http://www.britannica.com/science/cell-cycle.

“Cell Cycle.” Genome.gov, http://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Cell-Cycle.

“How Cells Divide.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/how-cells-divide.html.

“Https://Www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Books/NBK9876/.” The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial, http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/cells3.html.

“Phases of Mitosis | Mitosis | Biology (Article).” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, http://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/cell-cycle/a/phases-of-mitosis.

Urry, Lisa A., et al. Campbell Biology, 11th Ed. Pearson, 2017.

A Glimpse Into The Origin and Discovery of Viruses

Introduction

Viruses are microscopic organisms, smaller than bacteria, that are only capable of reproducing in a host. They are extremely small, most ranging from 20 to 400 nanometers. They are of particular interest to scientists because some of their characteristics resemble those of living organisms. For instance, they all contain a nucleic acid genome and a protein capsid. However, they are unable to reproduce without the help of a host.

A general misconception is that viruses and bacteria are the same. However, they are incredibly different. One notable difference between the two is their sizes. Bacteria, on average, are hundreds of times smaller than viruses, which rely on hosts to reproduce. Bacteria, on the other hand, are able to reproduce without a host, truly making them living organisms.

With viruses being so different, the question arises: how did they come to be in the first place? Did they evolve from another organism? Unfortunately, there is not a confirmed theory, currently, but scientists are running various experiments to try to uncover this mystery. The three main hypotheses that virologists have developed over the years include the regressive, progressive, and virus-first hypotheses.

The regressive hypothesis essentially claims that viruses were once cells that eventually became what they are today, having just a genome and protein capsid. The basis of this theory comes from the fact that some viruses have double-stranded DNA, similar to humans. The progressive hypothesis tackles the shortcoming of the regressive hypothesis: the inability to explain the origins of viruses with RNA. It essentially says that DNA and RNA acquire the ability to transfer from cell to cell. Lastly, the virus-first hypothesis — like its name implies — suggests that viruses must have evolved first, predating even cells. The support for this theory comes from the fact that viruses are simpler than cells and thus evolution may have caused more complex cells to form. However, viruses rely on hosts, so if viruses did evolve first, then it begs the question of how they managed to survive.

Tobacco Mosaic Virus

In the second half of the 19^th century, a prevalent disease was causing the discoloration of tobacco leaves. Due to this discoloration, farmers faced huge losses as over half of their crops were gone to waste. To try to discover what was causing this, Adolf Mayer, in 1879, tried to spot the virus causing this. However, as technology for viewing viruses had not been developed at the time, Mayer was unable to identify the cause. In 1892, biologist Dmitry Ivanovsky discovered that whatever was causing this disease was able to pass through porcelain filters, which meant it was smaller than bacteria. Finally, in 1898, Martinus Beijerinck was able to prove the culprit causing the disease was in an entirely new family of its own, now known as a virus.

This discovery was the basis for understanding viruses and eventually led to Wendell M. Stanley winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1946) for being able to “show that the tobacco mosaic virus is composed of protein and ribonucleic acid, or RNA.” Each discovery since the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus has been crucial to understanding more about viruses and the natural world. In fact, Dr. Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton, and Charles M. Rice were awarded The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine last year for discovering the hepatitis C virus.

Our understanding of viruses has come a long way since the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus, but with improving technology and more research being conducted, there is no doubt our understanding of viruses will continue to expand in the years to come.

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2021

References

Elmer, Nicole L, and About the author Nicole L Elmer . “Where Do Viruses Come From?” Biodiversity Center, 8 May 2020, biodiversity.utexas.edu/news/entry/where-do-viruses-come-from.

H;, Lecoq. “[Discovery of the First Virus, the Tobacco Mosaic Virus: 1892 or 1898?].” Comptes Rendus De L’Academie Des Sciences. Serie III, Sciences De La Vie, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11570281/.

“Intro to Viruses (Article).” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, http://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-immune-system/a/intro-to-viruses.

Machemer, Theresa. “How a Few Sick Tobacco Plants Led Scientists to Unravel the Truth About Viruses.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 24 Mar. 2020, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-are-viruses-history-tobacco-mosaic-disease-180974480/.

Moorman, Gary W. “Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV).” Penn State Extension, 26 Dec. 2020, extension.psu.edu/tobacco-mosaic-virus-tmv.

“The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1946.” NobelPrize.org, http://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1946/stanley/facts/.

“Nobel Prize in Chemistry.” Our Scientists, http://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/wendell-m-stanley/2538-nobel-prize/.

The Origin of New Flu Strains, sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/PH/PH709_Influenza/PH709_Influenza4.html.

“The Protein Capsid.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., http://www.britannica.com/science/virus/The-protein-capsid.

“Three Hypotheses on Origin of Viruses.” Www.donga.com, 6 June 2015, 7:16, http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20150606/410836/1/Three-hypotheses-on-origin-of-viruses.

“Tobacco Mosaic Virus.” Tobacco Mosaic Virus – an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, http://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/tobacco-mosaic-virus.

Vidyasagar, Aparna. “What Are Viruses?” LiveScience, Purch, 6 Jan. 2016, http://www.livescience.com/53272-what-is-a-virus.html.

Virus Structure. msu.edu/course/mmg/569/Virus%20Structure.htm#:~:text=All%20viruses%20contain%20the%20following,virus%20is%20called%20the%20virion.

“Viruses and Evolution.” History of Vaccines, http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/articles/viruses-and-evolution.

“Viruses vs Bacteria.” The Bella Moss Foundation, http://www.thebellamossfoundation.com/pet-carers/treatment/viruses-vs-bacteria/.

Wessner, David R. The Origins of Viruses. Nature Publishing Group, 2010, http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-origins-of-viruses-14398218/.

Wu, Katherine J., and Daniel Victor. “Nobel Prize in Medicine Awarded to Scientists Who Discovered Hepatitis C Virus.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 5 Oct. 2020, http://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/05/health/nobel-prize-medicine-hepatitis-c.html.

Possibility of Life on Venus – Phosphine and Microbial Life

Introduction

Since the dawn of history, mankind has been on the search for signs of life outside of Earth. Every quest past the boundaries of our knowledge, from studying microscopic organisms to the content of the moon, has been to quench our thirst for answers. Until recently, in the search for answers to life outside of Earth, Venus was largely overlooked, but a fascinating, recent finding could unleash and spark future studies on our neighboring planet.

Venus is our solar system’s hottest planet with average temperatures of 460 degrees Celsius (around 860 degrees Fahrenheit). Its atmosphere is composed primarily of carbon dioxide but also contains sulfuric acid. Venus’ atmosphere also is over 90 times denser than the Earth’s. This contributes to making Venus the hottest planet as the green-house effect is highly prevalent under these conditions.

With such stark differences between Earth and Venus, it is no wonder that scientists’ attention was turned to bodies that are more similar to Earth. However, recent detections of phosphine have ignited talk about the possibility of life on Venus.

Phosphine is a gas that on Earth is produced from biological processes such as bacteria in anaerobic environments or can be artificially manufactured. Structurally, it is three hydrogen atoms bonded to phosphorus. For scientists, it is the possibility of phosphine being emitted from biological processes that intrigues them since a biological process implies life. However, only twenty molecules of phosphine were found for every billion molecules, a relatively minute quantity. Nonetheless, there is phosphine, irrespective of the quantity, so perhaps mankind is a step closer to discovering extraterrestrial life. All of this boils down to one question: does the presence of phosphine indicate the presence of microbes and thus life on Venus?

Studies

Though phosphine may be produced from biological processes, some argue that the phosphine may have been produced in other ways. For example, Ngoc Truong and Jonathan I. Lunine authored a study in which “[they] hypothesize that trace amounts of phosphides formed in the mantle would be brought to the surface by volcanism, and then subsequently ejected into the atmosphere, where they could react with water or sulfuric acid to form phosphine.”

Others claim that phosphine may not be present on Venus’ surface altogether. A group of scientists challenged the finding of phosphine by re-analyzing ALMA data and finding the results “statistically unreliable.” In their paper, they explain how “ALMA observations presented by GRB20 provide several arguments to support the validity of their identification of the PH3 feature, including a comparison to the JCMT data and a test at offset frequencies. [Their] analysis, however, shows that at least a handful of spurious features can be obtained with [the other] method, and therefore conclude that the presented analysis does not provide a solid basis to infer the presence of PH3 in the Venus atmosphere.”

It is also important to note that Venus is not the first planet for phosphine to be found in; phosphine has been found in Jupiter, Saturn, and of course, Earth. What scientists are striving to understand, though, is whether the phosphine in Venus’ atmosphere is caused by geological, chemical, biological, or other processes. If phosphine was produced by the more exciting possibility, a biological process, it begs the question of how microbial life managed to arrive on Venus in the first place. One theory is that microbes appeared when Venus had oceans several hundred years ago, but after the oceans dried up, the microbes took refuge in the sky.

Conclusion

Although it may seem like these contradicting studies extinguish the chance of finding life on Venus, that is not the case. In researching and discovering anything, contradicting data and studies will be present, and even if the contradicting data proves to be correct, it is a healthy progression that advances our knowledge of science. For example, if future studies indeed establish phosphine is not a result of biological processes, then our understanding of science will improve. By the same token, if future studies prove the presence of phosphine in Venus’ atmosphere is a result of biological processes, our understanding of science will still improve.

Ultimately, though all of these findings are relatively new, one thing is certain: the search for life on Venus will develop and expand. NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine himself said it is “time to prioritize Venus.” Perhaps spacecraft in the near future may provide more information about the phosphine in the Venusian atmosphere. Until then, mankind will have to wait.

Saharsh Satheesh, Youth Medical Journal 2020

References

“All About Venus.” NASA, NASA, 2 June 2020, spaceplace.nasa.gov/all-about-venus/en/.

Gough, Evan. “Maybe Volcanoes Could Explain the Phosphine in Venus’ Atmosphere.” Universe Today, 30 Sept. 2020, www.universetoday.com/148094/maybe-volcanoes-could-explain-the-phosphine-in-venus-atmosphere/.

“NASA Mulls Venus Mission after Recent Discoveries.” Yahoo! News, Yahoo!, 17 Sept. 2020, news.yahoo.com/nasa-mulls-venus-mission-recent-201520659.html.

O’Neill, Mike. “Signs of Life on Venus? What This Means for Earthlings.” SciTechDaily, 31 Oct. 2020, scitechdaily.com/signs-of-life-on-venus-what-this-means-for-earthlings/.

O’Neill, Mike. “What Is Phosphine and Why Does It Point to Extra-Terrestrial Life Floating in the Clouds of Venus?” SciTechDaily, 22 Sept. 2020, scitechdaily.com/what-is-phosphine-and-why-does-it-point-to-extra-terrestrial-life-floating-in-the-clouds-of-venus/.

Patel, Neel V. “Not Finding Life on Venus Would Be Disappointing. But It’s Good Science at Work.” MIT Technology Review, MIT Technology Review, 30 Oct. 2020, www.technologyreview.com/2020/10/31/1011487/not-finding-life-on-venus-disappointing-good-science-phosphine-biosignature/.

Re-Analysis of the 267-GHz ALMA Observations of Venus. 21 Oct. 2020, arxiv.org/pdf/2010.09761.pdf.

Siegel, Ethan. “Don’t Bet On Aliens: Phosphine Is Amazing, But Doesn’t Mean ‘Life On Venus’.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 15 Sept. 2020, www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/09/15/dont-bet-on-aliens-phosphine-is-amazing-but-doesnt-mean-life-on-venus/?sh=601f03674fbc.

Stirone, Shannon, et al. “Life on Venus? Astronomers See a Signal in Its Clouds.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 14 Sept. 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/09/14/science/venus-life-clouds.html.